Who introduced the concept of higher nervous activity. Types of higher nervous activity: description, features and characteristics. Two signaling systems of reality

– This is a set of congenital and acquired properties of the nervous system that determine the nature of the interaction of the body with the environment and are reflected in all functions of the body.

The type of higher nervous activity is based on the individual characteristics of its occurrence in two areas: and inhibition. According to the views of I.P. Pavlov, the main properties of nervous processes are three:

1) The strength of the processes of excitation and inhibition (related to the performance of nerve cells).

The strength of excitation processes characterized by: high performance; initiative; determination; courage; courage; persistence in overcoming life's difficulties; the ability to solve complex situations without disruption of nervous activity.

Strength of braking processes characterized by: self-control; patience; high ability to concentrate, to differentiate the permissible, possible from the unacceptable and impossible.

Weakness of nervous processes characterized by: low performance; increased fatigue; weak endurance; indecision in difficult situations, and the rapid onset of neurogenic breakdowns; the desire to avoid difficulties, obstacles, active work and tension; low initiative; lack of persistence.

2) (related to the ratio of excitation and inhibition processes in terms of their strength).

Balance of nervous processes characterized by: even attitude towards people; restraint; ability to self-control, concentration, expectation; the ability to fall asleep easily and quickly; smooth speech, with correct and expressive intonation.

Imbalance with a predominance of excitement characterized by: increased impressionability; nervousness, and in the strong type this is expressed in a tendency to scream, in the weak type - in withdrawal, in tearfulness; restless with frequent nightmare content; fast speech (patter).

3) Mobility of excitation and inhibition processes (associated with the ability of nervous processes to replace each other).

Mobility of nervous processes characterized by: a fairly easy and quick transition to a new business; rapid transformation of habits and skills; ease of falling asleep and waking up.

Inertness of nervous processes characterized by: difficulty transitioning to a new business and changing habits and skills; difficulty waking up; calm with dreams without nightmares; slow speech.

Based on every possible combination of the three basic properties of nervous processes, a wide variety is formed. According to the classification of I.P. Pavlov, there are four main types of GNI , differing in resistance to neurotic factors and adaptive properties.

1) Strong, unbalanced , ("unrestrained") type characterized by strong processes of excitation that prevail over inhibition. This is a passionate person; with a high level of activity; vigorous; hot-tempered; irritable; with strong, quickly arising, clearly reflected in speech, gestures, facial expressions.

2) Strong, balanced, agile (labile or living) type is different strong processes of excitation and inhibition, their balance and the ability to easily replace one process with another. He is a man of great self-control; decisive; overcoming difficulties; vigorous; able to quickly navigate a new environment; mobile; impressionable; with a bright expression and easy changeability.

3) Strong, balanced, inert (calm) type characterized strong processes of excitation and inhibition, their balance, but low mobility of nervous processes. This is a very efficient person; able to restrain himself; calm; slow; with weak expression of feelings; difficulty switching from one type of activity to another; does not like to change his habits.

4) Weak type is different weak excitation processes and easily occurring inhibitory reactions. This is a weak-willed man; sad; dreary; with high emotional vulnerability; suspicious; prone to dark thoughts; with a depressed mood; closed; timid; easily susceptible to other people's influence.

These types of higher nervous activity correspond to the temperaments described by Hippocrates:

Properties of nervous processes	Temperaments (according to Hippocrates)
		Sanguine	Phlegmatic person	Melancholic
Equilibrium	Unbalanced, with a predominance of the excitation process	Balanced	Balanced
Mobility		Mobile	Inert

However, in life such “pure” ones are rare; usually the combination of properties is more diverse. I.P. Pavlov also wrote that between these main types there are “intermediate, transitional types and they must be known in order to navigate human behavior.”

Along with the indicated types of GNI common to humans and animals, I.P. Pavlov specifically identified human types (particular types) based on the different ratio of the first and second signaling systems:

1. Art type characterized by a slight predominance of the first signaling system over the second. Representatives of this type are characterized by an objective, figurative perception of the surrounding world, operating in the process with sensory images.

2. Thinking type characterized by the predominance of the second signaling system over the first. This type is characterized by a pronounced ability to abstract from reality and to perform subtle analysis; operating with abstract symbols in the process of thinking.

3.Medium type characterized by the balance of signaling systems. Most people belong to this type; they are characterized by both figurative and speculative conclusions.

This classification reflects the nature of the functional interhemispheric asymmetry of the brain and the features of their interaction.

The doctrine of the types of higher nervous activity is important for understanding the patterns of formation of such important psychological characteristics of the individual as temperament and character. The type of GNI is the physiological basis of temperament. However, the type of GNI can be reduced to temperament, because the type of GNI is a physiological property of a person, and temperament is a psychological property of a person and is related to the dynamic side of a person’s mental activity. It should be remembered that temperament does not characterize the content side of a person (a person’s worldview, beliefs, views, interests, etc.). Features of the type of GNI and the prevailing temperament form the natural basis of the individual’s uniqueness.

Higher nervous activity (HNA)- is a set of forms of activity of the higher parts of the central nervous system, providing device humans and animals to the environment through appropriate behavior .

Behavior- a complex set of various actions of the body, caused by changes in external conditions or (in humans) by social motives, aimed at satisfying the biological needs that have arisen in connection with this and contributing to its survival and normal functioning.

❖ The founders of the doctrine of GNI:

■THEM. Sechenov in the book “Reflexes of the Brain” (1863) explained human behavior by the reflex principle of the brain.

■ I.P. Pavlov developed methods for studying reflexes and created the doctrine of unconditioned and conditioned reflexes; he is considered the founder of the theory of higher nervous activity - the physiology of behavior. According to I.P. According to Pavlov, higher nervous activity is a mental activity that ensures normal complex relationships of the whole organism with the outside world.

Higher nervous activity is reflexive character and is ensured by the work of the higher parts of the brain; in humans and mammals - by work cerebral cortex together with the subcortical nuclei forebrain and entities diencephalon .

Note: the concepts of the first and second signaling systems, reflexes and their types, memory, forms of manifestation of unconditioned reflexes, as well as the conditions and mechanisms for the formation of conditioned reflexes, the main types of inhibition and memory, methods of individual learning apply to both humans and animals and are considered in paragraph "".

❖ Features of the formation and manifestation of conditioned reflexes in humans:

■ specialization (each conditioned reflex is developed to a specific stimulus);

■ generalization (conditioned stimuli that are similar in nature cause the same unconditioned reaction).

❖The role of the cerebral cortex brain in ensuring human GNI:

■ cortex - the analytical center for signals coming from the senses;

■ formation of various sensations occurs in the cortex;

■ arcs of conditioned reflexes close in the cortex;

■the cortex ensures a person’s mental activity, his consciousness, abstract thinking, memory and speech;

■ the cortex is the organ of acquisition and accumulation of life experience.

❖ Higher nervous activity of man differs significantly from the GNI of animals, since based on both the first and second signaling systems « » . It is the basis of mental activity - consciousness, thinking and etc.

■ First signaling system characteristic of animals and humans; its stimuli are specific signals, objects and phenomena of the external world entering through the senses. In humans, it provides concrete thinking.

■ Second signaling system characteristic only of humans, associated with speech and formed in the course of interpersonal communication on the basis of information received in the form of words, signs, formulas. Provides abstract thinking .

One of the forms of manifestation of higher nervous activity is rational activity humans and animals.

Rational activity- this is the highest form of adaptation to environmental conditions and their changes, expressed in the ability catch patterns , connecting objects and phenomena of the environment, and based on them anticipate changes environment and consider them in their behavior. The higher the level of development of the nervous system, the deeper and more effective the rational activity.

Psyche- a set of brain functions that reflect the phenomena of the external and internal world of a person; the ability of a highly developed brain to create image of reality , perceived as something separate from the object creating this image.

The mental activity of the brain is reflexive in nature.

The psyche is in unity with somatic (bodily) processes and is characterized by activity, integrity, development, self-regulation, communication, adaptation, etc.

Sensation, perception, attention, imagination

In concept consciousness (which is the highest manifestation of the psyche, see below) includes cognitive processes with the help of which a person constantly replenishes and enriches his knowledge: sensation, perception, attention, imagination, memory, thinking.

Feeling- an elementary, reflexive psychophysiological process in nature, which consists in the reflection of objects and phenomena by the brain when they influence the receptors of the sense organs; This is the first stage in understanding the world.

There are feelings visual, auditory, skin (tactile), gustatory etc. In different areas of the brain, individual signs of the stimulus are processed and analyzed. This information is combined, and in the associative areas of the cortex it is comprehensively assessed and responses to the stimulus are formed.

■ Sensations reflect only individual qualities and properties of the object, but the image of the object as a whole does not arise.

■ Sensations depend on the individual characteristics of a person. Examples: ear for music, the ability to distinguish subtle shades of color or smell).

■ When an object is perceived by receptors of different functions, sensations may be distorted (example: cold tea seems sweeter than the same, but hot tea).

Perception- this is the reflection of objects or phenomena as a whole in the human brain in the form of sensations, images or verbal symbols at those moments when they act on the senses. Those. perception is the formation from a set of individual sensations of a mental image of an object, an idea of ​​the object as a whole.

The formation of perception begins with irritation of the receptors of several sensory systems by an observed group of objects and ends in the higher parts of the central nervous system. There, information related to each individual feature of each object is first processed, then in other areas of the brain this information is analyzed and combined into complexes related to the same object. Finally, in the association areas of the cortex, these complexes of information are compared with information stored in memory, integrated, generalized and evaluated; Based on this assessment, a response to stimuli is developed.

Illusion of perception- an assessment of a perceived object distorted by the senses (example - optical illusions).

In order for an object, phenomenon, or event to be perceived, it is necessary that they evoke an indicative reaction, attract attention .

Attention- a psychophysiological process that manifests itself in concentration on something . It is based on the phenomenon dominants— creating a stable focus of excitation. Without attention, sensation is possible, but not perception; the more attention is attracted by an object or event, the more likely it is that the object or event will be perceived. Attention is the basis and necessary condition for learning.

❖ Types of attention: involuntary and voluntary.

Involuntary attention attracted by an unexpected, bright, strong stimulus.

Voluntary attention is directed by a person’s volitional effort, a consciously set goal.

Attention can be controlled; it can be trained and improved.

Distracted attention- lack of proper concentration on the object being examined, associated with increased distractibility to foreign objects.

Imagination- creating images of new objects and phenomena by recreating combinations of previously reproduced objects and phenomena stored in human memory. Imagination is unique to humans and is the basis of creativity.

Features of human memory

Memory- the process of accumulation, storage and subsequent reproduction by a person of past experience (information). Memory is the basis of thinking. Without it, learning, retaining experience and consolidating newly learned forms of behavior are impossible.

Physiological mechanism of memory(most plausible hypothesis ): memory is explained by changes in the nature of connections between neurons in the brain. Namely, the long-term effect of stimuli on the receptors causes the same long-term circulation of electrical impulses in the nerve structures of the brain, which leads to an increase in the number of protein receptors and synaptic contacts in the dendrites of brain neurons, an increase in the synthesis of mediators, etc. This, in turn, leads to the formation, accumulation and strengthening of temporary connections between neurons in the cerebral cortex, forming a “trace” ( engram ) information, i.e. to remembering it. Over time, these temporary connections, if they are not used by memory for a long time, are gradually destroyed.

■ Neurons in the temporal lobes of the cerebral cortex, limbic system, cerebellum and thalamus are involved in remembering, storing and retrieving information from memory.

Important memory feature: a person is unable to remember the information he receives in all its details, but remembers it only in the main, general way (but on a subconscious level, many details that seemed unimportant can also be remembered).

The classification of memory depending on the time of storage of information is discussed in paragraph “Animal Behavior”.

❖ Classification of memory depending on the type of stored information: procedural and declarative memory.

❖ Procedural memory stores purchased skills (see below), i.e. "how to" information. Example of procedural memory − motor memory.

■ Motor memory- remembering and reproducing movements; developed in athletes and dancers.

❖ Declarative memory stores information about past events and knowledge acquired by a person. Thanks to declarative memory, a person remembers the names of his loved ones, their faces, telephone numbers and birthdays, and the multiplication table. Separate types of declarative memory are emotional, semantic and figurative memory.

■ Emotional memory preserves the feelings experienced by a person; developed in all people.

■ Semantic memory- this is memorizing, preserving and reproducing words read, heard and spoken; developed in actors and singers.

■ Figurative memory- this is the memorization of visual and sound images; developed among musicians, writers and artists.

Skill- this is the ability acquired through exercise or created by habit to perform a certain sequence of actions necessary to obtain the desired result (walking, swimming, skating, writing, reading, etc. skills).

Dream

Dream- a special vital, periodically occurring physiological state of rest of the body, characterized by switching off consciousness, immobility, almost complete absence of reactions to external stimuli, a decrease in heart rate and metabolic rate, as well as a special organization of the activity of brain neurons.

The duration of sleep in adults is on average 7-8 hours, in newborns it is 21 hours.

Sleep is one of the phases of the daily cycle biorhythm, protective inhibition, in which the brain passes into a different state, characterized by the absence of active connections between the body and the environment, inhibition of conditioned reflexes and a significant weakening of unconditioned ones. At the same time, the brain stem continues to work, providing vital functions of the body (breathing, blood circulation, etc.).

Sleep phases. Normal sleep consists of 4-6 cycles, regularly replacing each other. Each cycle consists of two phases: slow wave and REM sleep .

NREM (or orthodox, deep) sleep occurs immediately after falling asleep and lasts 1-1.5 hours. It is characterized by the presence of a high-amplitude slow rhythm of brain activity ( business-rhythm recorded on the electroencephalogram), slower breathing, decreased heart rate, muscle relaxation, decreased intense metabolism and body temperature, lack of rapid movements of the eyeballs. Dreams are absent or fragmentary and dim. The leading one is parasympathetic innervation. Possible conversations in sleep, night terrors in children and sleepwalking (I iunatism). A person can quickly wake up when exposed to stimuli that are important to him, but may not wake up from strong, but familiar and indifferent stimuli.

■ The slow-wave sleep phase is unique to humans.

REM (or paradoxical, shallow) sleep- this is the dreaming phase; it occurs after the slow-wave sleep phase and lasts 15-20 minutes, after which the slow-wave sleep phase begins again. By morning, the duration of REM sleep increases to 30 minutes; the total duration of periods of REM sleep is 20-25% of the total sleep duration. REM sleep is characterized by increased heart rate and breathing, increased metabolism, increased body temperature, impulsive contractions of the muscles of the limbs and facial muscles, and eye movements under closed eyelids. Dreams during REM sleep are vivid, realistic, emotional, and often accompanied by sound and olfactory images. During this phase of sleep, neurons in the occipital lobes of the cerebral cortex are excited. The leading one is sympathetic innervation.

❖Theories explaining the mechanism of sleep. The nature of sleep is not fully understood. It is known that various structures of the central nervous system are involved in the regulation of sleep and wakefulness: the brain stem, hypothalamus, basal ganglia of the forebrain, pineal gland, etc. Currently, there are several theories that explain the occurrence of sleep for various reasons. These theories can be divided into two classes:

■ passive theories , according to which sleep occurs as a result of a decrease in the level of wakefulness, and

■ active theories , according to which sleep occurs as a result of inhibition of the wakefulness center of the diencephalon.

Deafferentation theory(belongs to the class of passive) states that the state of wakefulness is maintained due to the constant influx of nerve impulses from sensory neurons (afferent impulses) into the cerebral cortex. Sleep occurs when this flow weakens. When a person is in silence and closes his eyes, this promotes the onset of sleep.

Metabolic theory states that during active wakefulness, metabolic products accumulate in the blood, which have a depressing effect on the cerebral cortex and induce sleep. During sleep, these substances are destroyed, the activity of the cortex is restored, and awakening occurs.

Nerve center theories (or regulatory theories) The alternation of wakefulness and sleep is explained by changes in the activity of various nerve centers that control the functioning of the cerebral cortex. When these nerve centers inhibit the processes of excitation in the cortex, sleep occurs; The activating influence of these centers on the cortex contributes to awakening.

■ According to some variants of the regulatory theory, these centers are located in the hypothalamus (the anterior nuclei of the hypothalamus are sleep centers, the posterior nuclei are wakefulness centers), in the diencephalon, etc.

Reticular theory(one of the regulatory theories; currently considered the closest to the truth) states that the most important regulator of cortical activity is reticular formation (see below) hindbrain. With electrical stimulation of its cells that control sleep, the experimental animal falls asleep, and with electrical stimulation of the cells that control wakefulness, the sleeping animal awakens and becomes alert.

Reticular formation is a collection of neurons of different sizes and shapes, separated by many nerve fibers running in different directions; located in the pons of the hindbrain and continues into the medulla oblongata and midbrain.

❖ Meaning of sleep:

■ during sleep, additional processing, redistribution and storage of information received by the body during wakefulness occurs in the brain;

■ sleep helps the body adapt to the cyclic change of day and night,

■ sleep ensures the restoration of mental and physical performance due to the fact that during sleep the cells and tissues of the body gain a certain amount of independence and can carry out local self-regulation; when a person is deprived of sleep, his attention and memory are impaired, emotions are dulled, and his ability to work decreases; long-term sleep deprivation can cause mental illness;

■ from an evolutionary point of view, sleep is a favorable adaptation that ensures an increase in the level of organization of physiological systems in higher animals and humans.

Dreams

Dreams- these are more or less vivid and complex events, pictures, living images, etc. that arise in a sleeping person and are the product of the activity of nerve cells that remain active during sleep.

■ It is believed that dreams are accompanied by the appearance of high-frequency oscillations in the electroencephalogram of a sleeping person.

■ The first systematic study of the role of dreams was undertaken by the Austrian psychiatrist Sigmund Freud (1856-1939).

The main function of dreams- reduction of emotional stress that has arisen in a person during the day.

The nature of dreams is determined by past experiences, mental activity and the emotional and physical state of a person. It is caused by the spontaneous emergence and change of combinations of realistic or distorted images extracted from memory of actually occurring and desired events and phenomena of the external world, as well as conscious and unconscious internal conflicts, which may be superimposed by other images caused by the current state of the body (for example, difficulty breathing in sleep , disease, etc.) and signals from stimuli entering the brain during sleep.

Sleep hygiene

Long-term forced sleep deprivation is intolerable to the human body.

Sleep disturbance most often manifests itself in the form insomnia.

❖Causes of insomnia: lack of physical fatigue due to physical inactivity; disruption of the normal circadian rhythm (night work, evening entertainment, etc.); information overload (cinema, television, theater), emotional overstimulation, etc.

❖ Prevention of sleep disorders:

■ it is necessary to go to bed and get up at the same time every day (which contributes to the development of the corresponding conditioned reflex):

■ for some time before going to bed, you should not perform intense mental work, play noisy outdoor games, etc., which excite the nervous system;

■ before going to bed, it is useful to take a walk in the fresh air and take a warm shower;

■ habits that have developed over the course of life contribute to falling asleep quickly (for example, some people need a hearty dinner, others, on the contrary, need to go to bed on an empty stomach);

■ the bed should be flat and fairly hard, the pillow should be small.

The biological clock

The biological clock is a set of processes in a living organism that serve to unconsciously measure time and provide rhythmic changes in physiological functions. The nature of the biological clock has not yet been established.

The existence of a biological clock is proven by experiments during which the body is isolated from the external environment and kept for a long time at constant light, temperature, humidity, etc. It turns out that under these conditions, circadian rhythms in animals and humans are preserved, although they are somewhat disrupted - their period increases to 25-27 hours. This indicates that under natural conditions, cyclical processes in the environment (day and night) “adjust” the internal biological clock.

Biological rhythms

Biological rhythms- regular periodic changes in the speed and intensity of biological processes and the state of the body caused by them.

Classification of biorhythms depending on their source:

■ exogenous, associated with periodic changes in external factors - the change of day and night, seasonal climate changes, lunar phases, etc.;

■ endogenous, arising on the basis of the peculiarities of the kinetics of physical and chemical processes occurring in the body itself.

❖ Classification of biorhythms depending on the duration of their period:

■ circadian(or circadian, circadian) - rhythms whose period is approximately 24 hours; examples, the rhythm of physical activity (a person moves actively during the day and sleeps at night), the rhythm of body temperature (during the day it is on average 0.5-1° higher than at night), etc.;

■ ultradian- rhythms with a period of less than 24 hours; example: the rhythm of the stomach, intestines and digestive glands (with three meals a day, their work increases three times during the day), etc.;

■ infradian— rhythms with a period of more than 24 hours: seasonal, etc.

Consciousness and thinking

Consciousness- the most important property and product psyche , the highest function of the human brain, its ability to adequately reflect all aspects of reality and use mental activity for the directed regulation of human behavior, determining his (Human) relationship with the outside world, as well as for variable planning, subsequent assessment of the results of such behavior, cognitive

■ In a relatively primitive, undeveloped form, consciousness is characteristic of animals.

■ In man, in the process of his social evolution and based on the need for communication, transfer of experience and accumulated knowledge with the help of sounds, gestures, symbols, signs, consciousness acquired the most highly developed form.

■ One of the most important functions of consciousness is the implementation of cognitive processes.

Thinking- a psychophysiological process that allows cognitive functions to be carried out without direct contact with environmental objects; characteristic of humans and (to a small extent) of higher primates.

Thinking is based on the process of constant analysis of a huge amount of information coming from the external environment through the senses and from the subconscious functional level of the VIEW - memory, etc.

From a physiological point of view, thinking is based on complex processes associated with the propagation of nerve impulses along certain neural pathways in the brain! human and with the processing of these impulses in the bodies of neurons: combining impulses, switching them, highlighting the strongest impulse, etc.

Human consciousness and thinking reflect reality in an abstract form - in ideas, judgments, and concepts, speech is associated with thinking (see below).

Bilateral(hemispheric) brain organization means that each hemisphere is responsible for its own way of thinking: left the hemisphere processes information analytically and sequentially and is therefore capable of using abstract concepts, right the hemisphere processes information simultaneously and holistically and is therefore capable of using only images of objects; plays a big role in the thinking process.

Ways of thinking characteristic of humans: visual-figurative thinking and verbal-logical thinking.

Visual-figurative thinking- thinking based on analysis, comparison and generalization of various mental images of objects, phenomena, events. Provided right hemisphere of the brain.

Verbal and logical thinking- the ability to think using abstract concepts. Provided left hemisphere of the brain.

Speech and language

Speech- a psychophysiological process that is realized in a person’s ability to exchange information with other people using a complex system of sound ( oral speech) "mi visual ( written language) signs. It arose from the details of man to communication, transmission and receipt of knowledge.

Prerequisites for the appearance of sound speech: development and improvement of the larynx, lower jaw, tongue, individual muscles of the head and neck.

❖Speech functions: communicative and semantic (basic), abstractions and generalizations.

■ Communication function: speech is a means of communication between people; with its help, people exchange information - transfer knowledge, commands, impressions to each other.

■ Semantic function: speech is a means of expressing thoughts, their formation and development

■ Distraction function: speech allows you to gain new knowledge about objects and phenomena without addressing them directly.

■ Generalization function: many words of speech denote not one specific object, but entire groups of objects (cars, birds, animals, etc.), therefore, having an idea about one object of a given group, a person can generalize it to all others.

❖ Speech classification depending on the recipient:

■ external speech- speech addressed to an explicit or implicit interlocutor; With the help of such speech, people can exchange information. This speech can be oral - in the form dialogue or monologue - and written;

■ inner speech- a person’s mental conversation with himself (formed in children aged about three years on the basis of external monologue speech).

❖ Physiologically the process of reproducing, perceiving and understanding the meaning of speech is controlled by nerve centers located mainly in the temporal, frontal and parietal lobes left hemisphere cortex brain. Based on speech, a second signaling system is formed.

■ Broca's area(named after the scientist who discovered it; located in the frontal lobe of the cortex of the left hemisphere) ensures the formation of correct movements of the muscles of the larynx, tongue, lips for utterances words; when it is damaged (for example, as a result of a stroke), a person understands the meaning of words, but cannot pronounce them, while retaining the ability to play melodies without words and scream.

■ Wernicke's zone(located in the temporal lobe of the cortex of the left hemisphere) provides understanding meanings of words in oral speech, as well as recollection necessary words; When this zone is damaged, a person ceases to distinguish words and loses the ability to speak meaningfully.

■ The perception of written speech is carried out first by the occipital, then by the parietal and, finally, by the temporal lobe of the cortex of the left hemisphere of the brain.

The production of sounds consists of two processes - phonation and articulation .

■ Phonation- the process of formation of a “pure sound” (for example, “a-a-a-a”) in the larynx: exhaled air passes through the glottis, causing the vocal cords to vibrate, and then through the relaxed oral cavity. The tension on the vocal cords can be changed using special muscles, which changes the frequency of the sound produced.

■ Articulation- the process of modifying “pure sound” by changing the configuration of the oral cavity (examples: by stretching out the lips, a person turns the sound “a-a-a” into the sound “o-o-o”; by closing and opening the lips, raising the tongue to the palate, a person pronounces consonant sounds).

Language is a complex system of visual signs or sound signals, subject to certain rules of combination, that allows a person to designate objects and phenomena of the surrounding world. There are more than 5,000 languages ​​in the world, each of which is characterized by a specific vocabulary and grammatical structure.

Learning

Learning is an adaptive change in individual behavior as a result of life experience.

Basic forms of learning: non-associative, associative, cognitive.

■ Non-associative learning- change in behavior as a result of repeated exposure to a stimulus: imprinting, habituation, imitation . These are ways of learning that are characteristic of both humans and animals.

■ Associative learning is based on the formation of a stable connection (association) between two stimuli; characteristic of humans and (in some ways) animals. Associative learning includes the development of conditioned reflexes.

■ Cognitive learning- change in behavior as a result mental prediction of future events . Characteristic of humans and (to some extent) of higher primates. (Examples: knowing about possible very unpleasant consequences, a person does not perform certain actions, even if they may bring him short-term insignificant benefits; explaining to a person the error of his actions can encourage him to change his behavior by abandoning an established habit.)

Creation

Creation- this is an activity that generates qualitatively new, never before existing products that have social significance (the discovery of new laws in science, the invention of new technology, the creation of works of art, etc.). Creativity is the hallmark of human thinking.

The act of creativity requires special preparedness of the body, complete concentration and direction of all the attention and thoughts of a person on solving a specific problem for a more or less long period of time. Then, as a rule, the creative dominant of conscious thinking moves to the unconscious level, where it can exist for a long time (hours, days, months, years), constantly and actively selecting from memory and analyzing everything necessary to solve the problem, enriching itself and gradually maturing taking into account new knowledge, associations, impressions, accumulated experience, etc. The moment of conjecture, discovery is perceived by a person as a bright, suddenly emerging state of consciousness that cannot be foreseen; it is involuntary and seemingly accidental. An important element of creativity is intuition .

Intuition- one of the types of thinking, a feature of which is a person’s ability to instantly, without resorting to extensive logical reasoning, find a way to solve a particular complex problem.

Intuition is based on rich life experience, which allows the unconscious form of a person’s higher nervous activity to almost instantly analyze a huge amount of information, assess the situation and give consciousness the only correct decision.

Emotions

Emotions- subjective reactions (experiences) of a person, to which his attitude to the world around him is manifested (to people, their actions, to some phenomena) and to himself, their subjective assessment is given.

Emotions are divided into positive (joy, delight, pleasure, satisfaction, etc.) and negative (anger, horror, fear, sadness, disgust, etc.).

Positive emotions- emotions in which the brain structures are in such an active state that it encourages to intensify, prolong or repeat this state.

Negative emotions- emotions in which the brain structures are in an active state that encourages you to end - or weaken this state and prevent its recurrence.

Emotions are accompanied by:

■activation of the nervous system and release of hormones or other biologically active substances (example: during negative emotions, adrenalin - adrenal hormone); physiological changes during emotions mobilize the body, bringing it into a state of readiness for effective activity or defense;

■ characteristic expressive movements - gestures, facial expressions, intonation, changes in gait, etc., independent of a person’s nationality and level of culture. These movements serve to signal other individuals about their condition, i.e. are a means of communication between people. They evoke emotional responses in other people, which are used in education, acting, and teaching.

The difference between expressive movements and autonomic reactions: expressive movements can be controlled by a person's consciousness.

■ One of main tasks of education - training a person in a certain way culture of behavior , which implies restraint in the expressive manifestation of one’s emotions.

❖ Physiological nature of emotions: The highest centers of emotions are located in the cerebral cortex (especially in its temporal and frontal lobes) and in the diencephalon (in the hypothalamus). The frontal lobe activates or inhibits emotions; Patients with damaged frontal lobe experience emotional instability. Irritation of the structures of the diencephalon by electric current leads to external manifestations of emotions.

❖ Types of emotional states: actually emotions, moods, feelings, affects, passions.

■ Actually emotions(joy, fear, jealousy, etc.) are short-term emotional states that arise under the influence of specific conditions.

■ Mood- this is a long-term (hours, days) change in the general emotional state.

■ Feeling- a stable, long-term (weeks, months, years), independent of the state of the body and the visually perceived situation, a person’s emotional attitude towards other people, social and natural phenomena of reality (love for a person, duty to family, sense of honor, sense of beauty, etc.) d.).

■ Affect- an emotional state that quickly and violently takes possession of a person and has the character of a short-term outbreak (rage, anger, despair, etc.); most often occurs in response to a sharp change in important life circumstances for a person, when a person is not able to find a quick and correct way out.

■ Passion- strong, absolutely dominant an emotional state that directs all thoughts and activities of a person to achieve a set goal.

Individual. Individuality. Personality

Individual- a person as a representative of a biological species Homo sapiens , having a constitution common to the species (highly developed brain, upright posture, adaptability of hands to work, etc.) regardless of its specific individual characteristics.

Individuality- this is a specific person, a personality in his originality, with his inherent complex of traits (appearance, abilities, temperament, character , health, endurance, etc.), which distinguish him from all other people. Individuality can manifest itself with varying degrees of severity in one, several or all spheres of mental activity at once - intellectual, emotional, volitional.

Capabilities- a complex of individual properties and characteristics of a person that ensure the successful performance of various types of activities, the acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities. Abilities are not innate, they develop during the individual life of a person. The highest levels of development of abilities - talent and genius .

Temperament— human traits that characterize his individual type of activity, the degree of severity of motor manifestations and the level of his emotionality.

Character- a set of stable features of a person’s mental life, which are manifested in his typical modes of behavior - in manners, habits, in relation to ongoing events.

❖ Main character traits:

■ are common traits: integrity, consistency, courage, cowardice, honesty, discipline, activity, etc.;

■ traits expressing a person's attitude towards other people sociability, isolation, frankness, secrecy, sensitivity, friendliness, politeness, arrogance, etc.;

■ traits expressing a person's attitude towards himself self-esteem, modesty, conceit, arrogance, touchiness, shyness, selfishness, etc.;

■ features, expressing a person’s attitude to work , to one’s business: initiative, perseverance, hard work, laziness, conscientiousness, fear of difficulties or the desire to overcome them, etc.

Personality- this is a person as a biosocial being, as a subject of social relations and conscious activity, as a member of society, possessing a system of unique traits that determine the course of thoughts and conscious behavior characteristic of a given person, his attitude towards other people and their communities. A person is not born as a person, they become a person.

The emergence of personality occurs in the process of joint activity of the individual with other individuals.

Personality structure: personality is characterized activity , spiritual and organic needs, personality, self-awareness, interests, intelligence, will, etc.

Personal activity- a person’s desire to go beyond what has been achieved, to expand the scope of his activities, to act beyond the boundaries of the requirements of the situation.

Spiritual Needs- the desire for knowledge, creativity, perception of beauty.

Organic needs- needs that reflect the physiological needs of the human body (needs for air, food, water, procreation, etc.); are present in both humans and animals.

Personality orientation is a system of motivations (interests, beliefs, ideals, etc.) in which a person’s needs manifest themselves, determining his consciousness and behavior.

Motives- certain, internal conscious needs (reasons, reasons, etc.) that guide human activity.

Some historically established ideas about the main motive of an individual’s actions:

■ the pursuit of pleasure (the doctrine of hedonism; developed in antiquity);

■ fulfillment of duty (according to I. Kant);

■ sexual desire (according to 3. Freud).

Interests- these are conscious manifestations (in the form of thoughts, aspirations, actions) of the priority, most important, significant, attractive needs.

Direct interest has a direct connection with some need.

Indirect Interest assumes that in order to satisfy the target priority need, it is necessary to first satisfy one or more intermediate needs (example: to enter a medical university, you need to study the school biology course well).

Intelligence- a complex concept that characterizes a person’s ability to think and know; the ability to see what others do not notice; ability to pose problems and solve them; the ability to process information in a special, individual way, etc.

Will- a person’s ability to consciously and purposefully regulate their activities.

Personal self-awareness- mental image of one’s own self; understanding oneself, one’s meaning, role in life and human society.

❖ Components of personal self-awareness:

■ cognitive- the image of one’s qualities, abilities, appearance, social significance, etc.;

■ emotional— self-esteem: self-esteem, selfishness, self-abasement, etc.;

■ evaluative-volitional- the desire to increase self-esteem, gain respect, etc.

The formation of personality occurs as a result of resolving problems and contradictions that arise in the process of interaction with the surrounding social environment. Participation has a great influence on the formation of personality teachers .

❖ Phases of personality development: adaptation, individualization, integration.

Adaptation(first phase): assimilation to other members of the community, assimilation of their characteristic methods and nature of communication, value system, norms of behavior, etc.

Personalization(second phase) occurs when the individual strives to achieve maximum personalization and establish himself in society as a worthy and respected member by all, mobilizing all his resources. Carried out through self-actualization and creativity (see above).

Self-actualization— a person’s desire for the fullest manifestation and development of his personal capabilities; is one of the main incentives for personal development.

Integration(third phase of personality development) - positive perception by society of an individual’s activities and an increase in his (person’s) status. Otherwise, disintegration occurs—the alienation of the individual by society, and if the individual does not make attempts to restore himself, personality degradation occurs.

❖ Social factors influencing the biological nature of humans lead to acceleration (mass media retardation .

Retardation- slowing down the aging process.

Animals that he must have additional neurophysical mechanisms that determine the characteristics of his VND. Pavlov believed that the specificity of human GND arose as a result of a new way of interaction with the outside world, which became possible as a result of human activity and which was expressed in speech.

The basis of higher nervous activity is conditional, which arises in the process of vital activity of the organism, and allows it to expediently respond to external conditions and thereby adapt to constantly changing environmental conditions. Previously developed SDs are capable of fading and disappearing due to inhibition when the environment changes.

The stimuli for the formation of conditioned reflexes in humans are not only environmental factors (heat, cold, light, storage), but also words denoting a particular object or phenomenon. The exceptional ability of humans (unlike animals) to perceive the meaning of a word, the properties of objects, phenomena, human experiences, to think generally, to communicate with each other through speech. Outside of society, a person cannot learn to speak, perceive written and oral speech, study the knowledge accumulated over the long years of human existence, and pass it on to descendants.

A feature of human higher nervous activity is the high development of rational activity and its manifestation in the form. The level of rational activity directly depends on the level of development of the nervous system. Man has the most developed nervous system. A special feature of a person’s mental health is the awareness of many internal processes of his life. Consciousness is a function of the human brain.

Two signaling systems of reality

The higher nervous activity of humans differs significantly from the higher nervous activity of animals. In a person, in the process of his social and labor activity, a fundamentally new signaling system arises and reaches a high level of development.

The first reality signaling system- this is a system of our immediate sensations, perceptions, impressions of specific objects and phenomena of the surrounding world. Word (speech) is second signaling system(signal signal). It arose and developed on the basis of the first signaling system and is significant only in close connection with it.

Thanks to the second signaling system (the word), humans form temporary connections more quickly than animals, because the word carries the socially developed meaning of the object. Temporary human nerve connections are more stable and remain intact for many years.

The word is a means of cognition of the surrounding reality, a generalized and indirect reflection of its essential properties. With the word “a new principle of nervous activity is introduced - distraction and at the same time generalization of countless signals - a principle that determines limitless orientation in the surrounding world and creates the highest human adaptation - science.”

The action of a word as a conditioned stimulus can have the same power as the immediate primary signal stimulus. Not only mental, but also physiological processes are influenced by words (this underlies suggestion and self-hypnosis).

The second signaling system has two functions - communicative (it ensures communication between people) and the function of reflecting objective patterns. A word not only gives a name to an object, but also contains a generalization.

The second signal system includes the word audible, visible (written) and spoken.

I SS is the physiological basis of specific (objective) thinking and sensations; and II SSD is the basis of abstract (abstract) thinking. The joint activity of signaling systems in humans is the physiological basis of mental activity, the basis of the socio-historical level of reflection as the essence of the psyche and the transformation of images and signals into representations.

II SS is the highest regulator of human behavior. II SS, interacting with I SS, serves as the physiological basis of specifically human forms of reflection of reality - a conscious reflection that regulates the purposeful, systematic activity of a person not just as an organism, but as a subject of socio-historical activity.

From the point of view of signaling systems, human GNI has three levels of its mechanism:

• the first level is unconscious, it is based on unconditioned reflexes;
• the second level is subconscious, its basis is I SS;
• the third level is conscious, its basis is II SS.

Speech has significantly increased the human brain's ability to reflect reality. It provided the highest forms of analysis and synthesis.

By signaling about a particular object, a word distinguishes it from a group of others. This is the analytical function of the word. At the same time, the word as an irritant also has a general meaning for a person. This is a manifestation of its synthetic function.

The physiological mechanism of acquired complex forms of generalization is inherent in humans in the properties of the word as a signal of signals. The word in this capacity is formed due to its participation and the formation of a large number of temporary connections. The degree of generalization cannot be considered as a constant, stable category, because it changes, and, what is especially important, depending on the conditions for the formation of temporary connections among students in the process of their learning. Physiologically, generalization and abstraction are based on two principles:

1. formation of consistency in;
2. gradual reduction of the signal image.

Based on these ideas about the essence of the mechanism of the generalization process, the idea of ​​​​the basics of the formation of new concepts also turns out to be more understandable. In this case, the transformation of words into integrators of various levels should be considered as the development of broader concepts among schoolchildren. Such changes lead to the construction of an increasingly complex system and to a broader development of the scope of integration. The fading of conditional connections included in this system narrows the scope of integration and, consequently, complicates the formation of new concepts. It follows from this that the formation of concepts in the physiological sense is of a reflex nature, i.e. its basis is the formation of temporary connections to a conditioned speech signal with adequate unconditional reflex reinforcement.

In a child of primary school age, due to the insufficient development of the second signaling system, visual thinking predominates, and therefore it has a predominantly visual-figurative character. However, along with the development of the second signaling system, the child begins to develop theoretical, abstract thinking.

The interaction of signaling systems is the most important factor in the formation of the concrete and the abstract. In the process of establishing relationships between signaling systems, interference may occur mainly due to the most vulnerable second signaling system. So, for example, in the absence of stimuli that contribute to the development of the second signaling system, the child’s mental activity is delayed, and the first signaling system (figurative, concrete thinking) remains the predominant evaluative system of his relationship with the environment. At the same time, the teacher’s desire to force the child’s abstract abilities to manifest themselves as early as possible, without commensurating this with the level of mental development achieved by the child, can also lead to disruption of the manifestations of the second signaling system. In this case, the first signaling system gets out of the control of the second signaling system, which can be easily seen from the child’s behavioral reactions: his ability to think is impaired, the argument becomes not logical, but conflicting, emotionally charged. Such children quickly develop behavioral breakdowns, resentment, tearfulness, and aggressiveness.

Violation of the relationship between signaling systems can be eliminated using pedagogical techniques. An example of this can be the means and methods used by A.S. Makarenko. By influencing with words (through the second signaling system) and reinforcing with action (through the first signaling system), he was able to normalize behavior even in very “difficult” children. A.S. Makarenko believed that the main thing in a child’s development is the skillful organization of his various active activities (cognitive, labor, play, etc.). The interaction of signaling systems contributes to the formation of such activity and, obviously, this ensures, in addition, the necessary development of moral education.

The second signaling system is more easily subject to fatigue and inhibition. Therefore, in primary grades, classes should be structured so that lessons requiring the predominant activity of the second signaling system (for example, ) alternate with lessons in which the activity of the first signaling system would predominate (for example, natural science).

The study of signal systems is also important for pedagogy because it provides the teacher with great opportunities to establish the necessary interaction between verbal explanation and visualization in the learning process, to educate students in the ability to correctly correlate the concrete with the abstract. The “living word” of the teacher is already a means of clarity. The art of mastering words lies, first of all, in the ability to evoke in students a vivid idea, a “living image” of what the teacher is talking about. Without this, the teacher's story is always boring, uninteresting and poorly retained in the students' memory. A skillful combination of words and visuals is also important in a teacher’s practice. In school methodological practice, a strong belief has been established in the undoubted benefits of visual teaching, which applies mainly to teaching in the primary grades. Indeed, in the educational process, object visibility acts both as an object of study and as a source of knowledge acquired by students in the learning process. Visual learning is a means of organizing a variety of student activities and is used by the teacher to ensure that learning is most effective, accessible and contributes to the development of children. The combined effect of words and visual aids contributes to the attention of students and supports them in the issue being studied.

The combination of a word with visibility takes one of the most common forms: the word acts as a conditioned signal for the student’s activity, for example, as a signal for him to start studying a program issue, and visibility serves as a means of perception. Moreover, the essence of the phenomenon is perceived by students from a verbal explanation, and visualization only serves as a means of confirming the correctness of what is being explained and creates conviction in this. The teacher can use each method separately or both together, but it should always be remembered that physiologically they are not unambiguous. If in the first method of using visualization in students, the development of the first signal system turns out to be predominant, which is expressed in the formation of a concrete idea of ​​​​the object or phenomenon being studied, then in the second, on the contrary, the second signal system receives predominant development, which is expressed in the formation of an abstract idea that plays here a big role, because the visual only confirms the abstract idea. By properly applying each of these methods, the desired relationship between the first and second signaling systems can be achieved without making either one too dominant. Otherwise, the student will have a more developed ability to perceive only the concrete, and then he will be in a difficult position every time necessity forces him to use his ability to abstract, or, perhaps, on the contrary, the ability to perceive only the abstract will put the student in a difficult position. position every time he would have to refer to a specific material. Consequently, the combination of verbal explanation with visualization can serve pedagogy and be effective only if the teacher finds the means to establish the necessary relationship between the first and second signal systems of reality, which express people’s concrete and abstract ideas about the environment.

The nervous system is the leading physiological system of the body. Without it, it would be impossible to connect countless cells, tissues, and organs into a single hormonal working whole.

The functional nervous system is divided “conditionally” into two types:

Thus, thanks to the activity of the nervous system, we are connected with the world around us, we are able to admire its perfection, and learn the secrets of its material phenomena. Finally, thanks to the activity of the nervous system, a person is able to actively influence the surrounding nature and transform it in the desired direction.

The psyche is a product of the activity of the cerebral cortex. This activity is called higher nervous activity. The principles and laws of higher nervous activity discovered by I.M. Sechenov and I.P. Pavlov and their followers are the natural scientific basis of modern psychology. Before considering the patterns of higher nervous activity, let us get acquainted with the structure and function of the nervous system.

At the highest stage of its development, the central nervous system acquires one more function: it becomes organ of mental activity, in which, based on physiological processes, arise sensations, perceptions and thinking appear. The human brain is an organ that provides the possibility of social life, communication of people with each other, knowledge of the laws of nature and society and their use in social practice.

The main form of activity of the nervous system is reflex. All reflexes are usually divided into unconditioned and conditioned.

Unconditioned reflexes - These are innate, genetically programmed reactions of the body, characteristic of all animals and humans. The reflex arcs of these reflexes are formed during the process of prenatal development, and in some cases, during the process of postnatal development. For example, innate sexual reflexes are finally formed in a person only at the time of puberty in adolescence. Unconditioned reflexes have conservative, little changing reflex arcs passing mainly through the subcortical sections of the central nervous system. The participation of the cortex in the course of many unconditioned reflexes is optional.

Conditioned reflexes - individual, acquired reactions of higher animals and humans, developed as a result of learning (experience). Conditioned reflexes are always individually unique. Reflex arcs of conditioned reflexes are formed in the process of postnatal ontogenesis. They are characterized by high mobility and the ability to change under the influence of environmental factors. Reflex arcs of conditioned reflexes pass through the highest part of the brain - the cerebral cortex.

Classification of unconditioned reflexes.

The question of the classification of unconditioned reflexes still remains open, although the main types of these reactions are well known. Let us dwell on some particularly important unconditioned human reflexes.

1. Food reflexes. For example, salivation when food enters the oral cavity or the sucking reflex in a newborn baby.

2. Defensive reflexes. Reflexes that protect the body from various adverse effects, an example of which may be the reflex of withdrawing the hand when a finger is painfully irritated.

3. Orienting reflexes. Any new unexpected stimulus attracts the person’s attention.

4. Gaming reflexes. This type of unconditioned reflexes is widely found in various representatives of the animal kingdom and also has adaptive significance. Example: puppies playing. They hunt each other, sneak up and attack their “enemy”. Consequently, during the game the animal creates models of possible life situations and carries out a kind of “preparation” for various life surprises.

While maintaining its biological foundations, children's play acquires new qualitative features - it becomes an active tool for learning about the world and, like any other human activity, acquires a social character. Play is the very first preparation for future work and creative activity.

The child's play activity appears from 3-5 months of postnatal development and underlies the development of his ideas about the structure of the body and the subsequent isolation of himself from the surrounding reality. At 7-8 months, play activity acquires an “imitative or educational” character and contributes to the development of speech, improvement of the child’s emotional sphere and enrichment of his ideas about the surrounding reality. From the age of one and a half years, the child’s play becomes more and more complicated; the mother and other people close to the child are introduced into play situations, and thus the foundations are created for the formation of interpersonal, social relationships.

It should also be noted that sexual and parental unconditioned reflexes associated with the birth and feeding of offspring, reflexes that ensure movement and balance of the body in space, and reflexes that maintain homeostasis of the body.

More complex, unconditional reflex activities are instincts, the biological nature of which remains unclear in its details. In a simplified form, instincts can be represented as a complex interconnected series of simple innate reflexes.

For the formation of a conditioned reflex, the following essential conditions are necessary::

1. Presence of a conditioned stimulus

2. The presence of unconditional reinforcement;

The conditioned stimulus must always somewhat precede the unconditional reinforcement, that is, serve as a biologically significant signal; the conditioned stimulus, in terms of the strength of its effect, must be weaker than the unconditioned stimulus; finally, for the formation of a conditioned reflex, a normal (active) functional state of the nervous system is necessary, especially its leading part - the brain. Any change can be a conditioned stimulus! Powerful factors contributing to the formation of conditioned reflex activity are encouragement And punishment. At the same time, we understand the words “reward” and “punishment” in a broader sense than simply “satisfying hunger” or “painful influence.” It is in this sense that these factors are widely used in the process of teaching and raising a child, and every teacher and parent is well aware of their effective action. True, up to 3 years of age, “food reinforcement” is also of key importance for the development of useful reflexes in a child. However, then “verbal encouragement” acquires leading importance as reinforcement in the development of useful conditioned reflexes. Experiments show that in children over 5 years old, with the help of praise, you can develop any useful reflex in 100 % cases.

Thus, educational work, in its essence, is always associated with the development in children and adolescents of various conditioned reflex reactions or their complex interconnected systems.

Classification of conditioned reflexes due to their large number is difficult. Distinguish exteroceptive conditioned reflexes, formed during irritation of exteroceptors; interoceptive reflexes, formed by irritation of receptors located in internal organs; And proprioceptive , arising from irritation of muscle receptors.

Highlight natural and artificial conditioned reflexes. The former are formed by the action of natural unconditioned stimuli on the receptors, the latter by the action of indifferent stimuli. For example, the secretion of saliva in a child when he sees his favorite candy is a natural conditioned reflex, and the secretion of saliva that occurs in a hungry child when he sees dinnerware is an artificial reflex.

The interaction of positive and negative conditioned reflexes is important for the adequate interaction of the body with the external environment. Such an important feature of a child’s behavior as discipline is associated precisely with the interaction of these reflexes. In physical education lessons, in order to suppress self-preservation reactions and feelings of fear, for example, when performing gymnastic exercises on the uneven bars, students’ defensive negative conditioned reflexes are inhibited and positive motor ones are activated.

A special place is occupied by conditioned reflexes for time , the formation of which is associated with regularly repeated stimuli at the same time, for example, food intake. That is why, by the time of eating, the functional activity of the digestive organs increases, which has a biological meaning. Such rhythmicity of physiological processes underlies the rational organization of the daily routine of preschool and school-age children and is a necessary factor in the highly productive activity of an adult. Reflexes for time, obviously, should be classified as a group of so-called trace conditioned reflexes. These reflexes are developed if unconditional reinforcement is given 10-20 s after the final action of the conditioned stimulus. In some cases, it is possible to develop trace reflexes even after a 1-2 minute pause.

Imitation reflexes are important in a child’s life. , which are also a type of conditioned reflexes. To develop them, it is not necessary to take part in the experiment; it is enough to be its “spectator”.

The activity of the cerebral cortex is subject to a number of principles and laws. The main ones were first established by I.P. Pavlov. Currently, some provisions of Pavlov’s teaching have been clarified, developed, and some of them have been revised. However, to master the basics of modern neurophysiology, it is necessary to become familiar with the fundamental provisions of Pavlovian teaching.

Analytical-synthetic principle of higher nervous activity. As established by I.P. Pavlov, the main fundamental principle of operation of the cerebral cortex is the analytical-synthetic principle. Orientation in the environment is associated with the isolation of its individual properties, aspects, features (analysis) and the unification, connection of these features with what is useful or harmful to the body (synthesis). Synthesis is the closure of connections, and analysis is an increasingly subtle separation of one stimulus from another.

The analytical and synthetic activity of the cerebral cortex is carried out by the interaction of two nervous processes: excitation and inhibition. These processes are subject to the following laws.

Law of excitation irradiation. Very strong (as well as very weak) stimuli with prolonged exposure to the body cause irradiation - the spread of excitation over a significant part of the cerebral cortex.

Only optimal stimuli of medium strength cause strictly localized foci of excitation, which is the most important condition for successful activity.

Law of concentration of excitation. Excitation that has spread from a certain point to other zones of the cortex, over time, is concentrated in the place of its primary occurrence.

Law of mutual induction of nervous processes. At the periphery of the focus of one nervous process, a process with the opposite sign always occurs.

If the process of excitation is concentrated in one area of ​​the cortex, then the process of inhibition inductively arises around it. The more intense the concentrated excitation, the more intense and widespread the process of inhibition.

Along with simultaneous induction, there is sequential induction of nervous processes - a sequential change of nervous processes in the same areas of the brain.

Only a normal ratio of the processes of excitation and inhibition ensures behavior that is adequate (corresponding) to the environment. An imbalance between these processes, the predominance of one of them causes significant disturbances in mental regulation. Thus, the predominance of inhibition and its insufficient interaction with excitation leads to a decrease in the activity of the body. The predominance of excitement can be expressed in disordered chaotic activity, excessive fussiness, which reduces the effectiveness of activity. The process of inhibition is an active nervous process. It limits and directs the process of excitation in a certain direction, promotes concentration and concentration of excitation.

Inhibition can be external or internal. Thus, if an animal is suddenly affected by some new strong stimulus, then the animal’s previous activity will be inhibited at that moment. This is external (unconditional) inhibition. In this case, the emergence of a focus of excitation, according to the law of negative induction, causes inhibition of other areas of the cortex.

One of the types of internal or conditioned inhibition is the extinction of a conditioned reflex if it is not reinforced by an unconditioned stimulus (extinction inhibition). This type of inhibition causes the cessation of previously developed reactions if they become useless under new conditions.

Inhibition also occurs when the brain is overexcited. It protects nerve cells from exhaustion. This type of inhibition is called protective inhibition.

The analytical activity of the cerebral cortex, the ability to distinguish objects and phenomena that are similar in their properties, are also based on the internal type of inhibition. So, for example, when an animal develops a conditioned reflex to an ellipse, it first reacts to both the ellipse and the circle. Generalization occurs, the primary generalization of similar stimuli. But, if you constantly accompany the presentation of an ellipse with a food stimulus and do not reinforce the presentation of a circle, then the animal gradually begins to separate (differentiate) the ellipse from the circle (the reaction to the circle is inhibited). This type of inhibition, which underlies analysis and differentiation, is called differentiation inhibition. It clarifies the actions of the animal, making it more adapted to the environment.

Experiments show that if a dog develops a series of reflexes to different stimuli, which are repeated in a certain sequence, then over time the animal reproduces the entire system of responses when exposed to only one initial stimulus. This stable consolidation of a certain sequence of reactions is called a dynamic stereotype (from the Greek “stereos” - solid and “typos” - imprint).

The body adapts to stereotypically repeated external influences by developing a system of reactions. A dynamic stereotype is the physiological basis of many phenomena of human mental activity, for example, skills, habits, acquired needs, etc. A complex of dynamic stereotypes represents the physiological basis of stable characteristics of an individual’s behavior.

A dynamic stereotype is an expression of a special principle of brain functioning - systematicity. This principle is that the brain reacts to complex environmental influences not as a series of individual isolated stimuli, but as an integral system. External stereotype - a fixed sequence of influences is reflected in the internal neuro-dynamic stereotype. External stereotypes are all integral objects and phenomena (they always represent a certain set of characteristics): familiar surroundings, sequence of events, way of life, etc.

Breaking a habitual stereotype always causes severe nervous tension (subjectively this is expressed in melancholy, despondency, nervousness, irritability, etc.). No matter how difficult it is to break an old stereotype, new conditions form a new stereotype (which is why it is called dynamic). As a result of repeated functioning, it becomes more and more fixed and, in turn, becomes more and more difficult to change.

Dynamic stereotypes are especially stable in older people and in people with a weak type of nervous activity, with reduced mobility of nervous processes.

The habitual system of actions, causing relief from nervous work, is subjectively felt in the form of positive emotions. “The processes of establishing a stereotype, completing the installation, supporting the stereotype and violating it are subjectively diverse positive and negative feelings.”

In experiments with animals, I.P. Pavlov established that in some animals positive conditioned reflexes are formed quickly, and inhibitory reflexes are formed slowly. In other animals, on the contrary, positive conditioned reflexes are developed slowly, and inhibitory ones faster. In the third group of animals, both reflexes are easily developed and firmly established. Thus, it was found that the effect of certain stimuli depends not only on their quality, but also on the typological characteristics of higher nervous activity. By typological features of higher nervous activity we mean the dynamics of the course of nervous processes (excitation and inhibition) in individual individuals. It is characterized by the following three typological properties:

¨ the strength of nervous processes - the performance of nerve cells during excitation and inhibition;

¨ balance of nervous processes - the relationship between the strength of the processes of excitation and inhibition, their balance or the predominance of one process over the other;

¨ mobility of nervous processes - the speed of change of processes of excitation and inhibition.

Depending on the combination of the above properties, four types of higher nervous activity are distinguished.

First type characterized by increased strength of nervous processes, their balance and high mobility (living type).

Second type characterized by increased strength of nervous processes, but they are not balanced, the excitatory process predominates over the inhibitory process, these processes are mobile (uncontrolled type).

Third type characterized by increased strength of nervous processes, their balance, but low mobility (calm type).

Fourth type characterized by reduced strength of nervous processes and reduced mobility (weak type).

Thus, the type of higher nervous activity is a certain combination of stable properties of excitation and inhibition, characteristic of the highest first activity of a particular individual.

Various types of higher nervous activity underlie four temperaments: sanguine, choleric, phlegmatic, melancholic.

Peculiarities of higher nervous activity in humans The principles and patterns of higher nervous activity discussed above are common to both animals and humans. However, the higher nervous activity of humans differs significantly from the higher nervous activity of animals. In a person, in the process of his social and labor activity, a fundamentally new signaling system arises and reaches a high level of development.

The first reality signaling system- this is a system of our immediate sensations, perceptions, impressions of specific objects and phenomena of the surrounding world. The word (speech) is the second signaling system (signal signal). It arose and developed on the basis of the first signaling system and is significant only in close connection with it. Thanks to the second signaling system (the word), humans form temporary connections more quickly than animals, because the word carries the socially developed meaning of the object. Temporary human nervous connections are more stable and remain without reinforcement for many years.

The action of a word as a conditioned stimulus can have the same power as the immediate primary signal stimulus. Not only mental, but also physiological processes are influenced by words (this underlies suggestion and self-hypnosis).

The second signaling system has two functions - communicative (it ensures communication between people) and the function of reflecting objective patterns. A word not only gives a name to an object, but also contains a generalization.

1. I.M. Sechenov and I.P. Pavlov, the founders of the doctrine of GNI.

2. Unconditioned reflexes.

3. Conditioned reflexes.

4. Mechanism of formation of temporary connection.

5. Inhibition of conditioned reflexes.

6. Features of human GNI.

7. Functional system of behavioral act.

THEM. Sechenov and I.P. Pavlov, the founders of the doctrine of GNI. VND is the activity of the cerebral cortex and the subcortical formations closest to it, ensuring the most perfect adaptation of highly organized animals and humans in the environment.

The question of the reflex activity of the cortex was first presented by the founder of Russian physiology I.M. Sechenov in the book “Reflexes of the Brain” (1863). He believed that all human activity, including mental (mental), is carried out reflexively with the participation of the brain. The validity of Sechenov's views was subsequently confirmed by experimental research by I. P. Pavlov. He discovered conditioned reflexes - the basis of GNI.

All reflex reactions of the body to various stimuli I.P. Pavlov divided them into two groups: unconditional and conditional.

Unconditioned reflexes- these reflexes are innate and inherited. The most complex of them are called instincts (building honeycombs by bees, nests by birds). Unconditioned reflexes are characterized by great constancy. Such reflexes include sucking, swallowing, pupillary and various defensive reflexes. They are formed in response to various stimuli. Thus, the salivation reflex occurs when the taste buds of the tongue are irritated by food. The resulting excitation is transmitted along the sensory nerves to the medulla oblongata, where the center of salivation is located, from there it is carried through the motor nerves to the salivary glands, causing their secretion. The nerve centers of unconditioned reflexes lie in different parts of the brain and spinal cord. For their implementation, the participation of the cerebral cortex is not necessary. On the basis of unconditioned reflexes, the regulation and coordination of the activities of different organs and systems is carried out, and the very existence of the organism is supported.

However, with the help of unconditioned reflexes, the body cannot adapt to changing environmental conditions. Preservation of vital functions and adaptation to environmental conditions is carried out due to the formation of conditioned reflexes in the cerebral cortex.

Conditioned reflexes. These are reflexes developed during an individual’s life, thanks to the formation of temporary nerve connections in the higher parts of the central nervous system (cerebral cortex).

For the formation of conditioned reflexes, the following conditions are necessary: ​​1) the presence of two stimuli - indifferent, i.e. one that they want to make conditional, and unconditional, causing some activity of the body, for example, the secretion of saliva (food); 2) an indifferent stimulus (light, sound, etc.) must precede the unconditional one (for example, you must first give light, and two seconds later food); 3) the unconditioned stimulus must be stronger than the conditioned one (for a well-fed dog with low excitability of the food center, the bell will not become a conditioned food stimulus); 4) absence of distracting, extraneous stimuli; 5) vigorous state of the cortex.

The mechanism of formation of a temporary connection. According to the ideas of I.P. Pavlov, under the action of an unconditioned stimulus (food) and due to the excitation of the food center of the cortex and the salivation center of the medulla oblongata, a salivary reaction occurs. When exposed to a visual stimulus, the focus of excitation arises in the visual area of ​​the cortex. When the action of the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli coincides in time, a temporary connection is established between the food and visual centers of the cortex.

When a conditioned reflex is developed, the excitation that arises in the visual center under the action of a light stimulus spreads to the food center, and from the food center along the afferent pathways it is sent to the salivary center and a salivary reaction occurs.

The reflex arc of a conditioned reflex contains the following sections: a receptor that responds to a conditioned stimulus; sensory nerve and its corresponding ascending pathway with subcortical formations; area of ​​the cortex that perceives the conditioned stimulus (for example, the visual center); a section of the cortex associated with the center of the unconditioned reflex (food center); motor nerve; working body

Inhibition of conditioned reflexes. Conditioned reflexes are not only developed, but also disappear or weaken when living conditions change as a result of inhibition. I.P. Pavlov distinguished two types of inhibition of conditioned reflexes: unconditioned (external) and conditioned (internal). Unconditioned inhibition occurs as a result of the action of a new stimulus of sufficient strength. In this case, a new focus of excitation appears in the cerebral cortex, which causes inhibition of the existing focus of excitation. For example, an employee has developed a conditioned reflex in a dog to the light of a light bulb and wants to show it at a lecture. The experiment fails - there is no reflex. The noise of a crowded audience, new signals completely turn off conditioned reflex activity / Conditioned inhibition is of four types: 1) extinction; 2) differentiation; 3) delay; 4) conditional brake.

Extinction inhibition occurs when the conditioned stimulus is not reinforced by the unconditioned stimulus several times (the light is turned on, and not reinforced with food).

Differential inhibition is developed if one signal stimulus, for example, the note “C,” is reinforced by an unconditioned stimulus, and the note “S” is not reinforced. After several repetitions, the “do” note will cause a positive conditioned reflex, and the “salt” note will cause an inhibitory reflex.

Delayed inhibition occurs when a conditioned stimulus is reinforced by an unconditioned stimulus after a certain time. For example, they turn on the light, and reinforce food only after 3 minutes. The separation of saliva after delayed inhibition has been developed begins at the end of the third minute.

A conditioned inhibition occurs in cases when some indifferent stimulus is added to the conditioned stimulus to which a conditioned reflex has been developed, and this new complex stimulus is not reinforced.

Features of human higher nervous activity. The behavior of any animal is simpler than human behavior. Features of human higher nervous activity are highly developed mental activity, consciousness, speech, and the ability for abstract logical thinking. The higher nervous activity of man was formed historically in the course of work and necessity, communication. Based on the characteristics of higher nervous activity in humans and animals, I.P. Pavlov developed the doctrine of the first and second signal systems. Animals and humans receive signals from the external world through the corresponding sense organs. Perception of the surrounding world, associated with the analysis and synthesis of direct signals that come from visual, auditory, olfactory and other receptors, constituting the first signaling system. The second signaling system arose and developed in humans in connection with the appearance of speech. It is absent in animals. The signal meaning of a word is associated not with a simple sound combination, but with its semantic content. The first and second signaling systems are in close interaction and interrelation in humans, since the excitation of the first signaling system is transmitted to the second signaling system.

Emotions. Emotions are reactions of animals and humans to the influence of external and internal stimuli that have a pronounced subjective coloring and cover all types of sensitivity. There are positive emotions: joy, pleasure, pleasure, and negative ones: sadness, sadness, displeasure. Different types of emotions are accompanied by various physiological changes and mental manifestations in the body. For example, with sadness, embarrassment, and fear, the tone of the skeletal muscles decreases. Sadness is characterized by vasospasm, fear is characterized by relaxation of smooth muscles. Anger and joy are accompanied by an increase in the tone of skeletal muscles; with joy, in addition, blood vessels dilate; with anger, coordination of movements is upset, and the sugar level in the blood increases. Emotional arousal mobilizes all the body's reserves.

In the process of evolution, emotions were formed as a coping mechanism. Positive emotions play a huge role in a person’s life. They are important for maintaining human health and performance.

Memory. Accumulation, storage and processing of information is the most important property of the nervous system. There are two types of memory: short-term and long-term. Short-term memory is based on the circulation of nerve impulses along closed neural circuits. The material basis of long-term memory is various structural changes in neuron circuits caused by electrochemical excitation processes. Currently, peptides have been found that are produced by nerve cells and affect the memory process. Neurons of the cerebral cortex, the reticular formation of the brain stem, and the hypothalamic region are involved in the formation of memory. Visual, auditory, tactile, motor and mixed memory are distinguished depending on which of the analyzers plays the main role in this process.

Sleep and wakefulness. Alternation of sleep and wakefulness is a necessary condition of human life. The brain is kept awake by impulses from receptors. While awake, a person actively interacts with the external environment. When the flow of impulses into the brain ceases or is sharply limited, sleep develops. During sleep, the physiological activity of the body changes: muscles relax, skin sensitivity, vision, hearing, and smell decrease. Conditioned reflexes are inhibited, breathing is rare, metabolism, blood pressure, and heart rate are reduced.

According to electroencephalography (EEG), in a person's sleep there is an alternation of two main phases of sleep: the phase of slow-wave sleep - a period of deep sleep, during which slow activity (delta waves) can be recorded on the EEG, and the phase of paradoxical, or fast-wave, sleep, during which the EEG records rhythms characteristic of a state of wakefulness. In this phase, rapid eye movements are observed, pulse and breathing rates increase; a person dreams. This phase occurs approximately every 80-90 minutes, its duration is on average 20 minutes.

Sleep is a protective device of the body, protecting it from excessive irritation and making it possible to restore efficiency. During sleep, the higher parts of the brain process information received during the waking period. According to the reticular theory of sleep and wakefulness, the onset of sleep is associated with the inhibition of the ascending influences of the reticular formation, activating the higher parts of the brain. The mediators serotonin and norepinephrine play an important role in the regulation of the sleep-wake cycle.

Functional system of behavioral act.Functional system as an integrative formation of the brain. The most advanced model of the structure of behavior is set out in the concept of the functional system by P.K. Anokhina. Functional system– this is a unit of integrative activity of the body that carries out selective involvement and integration of structures and processes aimed at performing any behavioral act or function of the body.

The functional system is dynamic, capable of restructuring, and selectively involving brain structures to carry out behavioral reactions. There are two types of functional systems of the body: 1. Functional systems of the homeostatic level of regulation ensure the constancy of the constants of the internal environment of the body (body temperature, blood pressure, etc.); 2. Functional systems of the behavioral level of regulation ensure adaptation of the body through changes in behavior.

Stages of a behavioral act. According to the ideas of P.K. Anokhin, the physiological architecture of a behavioral act is built from successively successive stages: afferent synthesis, decision-making, acceptor of action results, efferent synthesis (action program), formation of the action itself and evaluation of the achieved results.

Afferent synthesis consists in processing and comparing all information that is used by the body to make decisions and form the most adequate adaptive behavior. Excitation in the central nervous system caused by an external stimulus does not act in isolation. It interacts with other afferent excitations that have a different functional meaning. The brain synthesizes all signals arriving through various channels. And only as a result of this, conditions are created for the implementation of purposeful behavior. In turn, afferent synthesis is determined by the influence of several factors: motivational arousal, environmental afferentation, memory and triggering afferentation.

Motivational arousal arises in the central nervous system with the appearance of any need in humans and animals; it has a dominant character, i.e. suppresses other motivations and directs the body's behavior to achieve a useful adaptive result. The basis of dominant motivation is the mechanism of dominance A.A. Ukhtomsky.

Situational afferentation represents the integration of excitations under the influence of the environment on the organism. It can promote or, on the contrary, hinder the implementation of motivation. For example, a feeling of hunger that arises at home causes actions aimed at satisfying it, but if this feeling arises at a lecture, then behavioral reactions related to the satisfaction of this need do not occur.

Trigger afferentation associated with the action of a signal, which is a direct stimulus for triggering a particular behavioral reaction. An adequate reaction can only occur through the interaction of situational and trigger afferentation, which creates pre-trigger integration of nervous processes.

Usage memory device occurs when incoming information is evaluated by comparison with memory traces related to a given dominant motivation. Completion of the afferent synthesis stage is accompanied by a transition to the decision-making stage.

Under decision making understand the selective involvement of a complex of neurons, which ensures the emergence of a single reaction aimed at satisfying a dominant need. The body has many degrees of freedom in choosing its response. When making a decision, one behavioral reaction is selected, all other degrees of freedom are inhibited. The decision-making stage is implemented through the stage of forming an acceptor of action results.

Acceptor of action results – this is a neural model of the expected result. It is formed in the cerebral cortex and subcortical structures due to the involvement of neural and synaptic formations in the activity, determining the architecture of the distribution of excitations. Excitation, once in a network of interneurons with ring connections, can circulate in it for a long time, ensuring retention of the goal of behavior.

Then develops stage of the action program (efferent synthesis). At this stage, the integration of somatic and vegetative arousals into a holistic behavioral act occurs. This stage is characterized by the fact that the action has already been formed as a central process, but externally it is not realized.

Formation stage result of action characterized by the implementation of a behavioral program. Efferent excitation reaches the actuators and the action is carried out. Thanks to the acceptor of action results, in which the goal and methods of behavior are programmed, the body can compare them with afferent information about the results and parameters of the action performed.

If the signal about the completed action fully corresponds to the programmed information contained in the action results acceptor, then the search behavior ends, the need is satisfied, the person and animal calm down. In the case when the results of an action do not coincide with the acceptor of the action and their mismatch occurs, then the afferent synthesis is rebuilt, a new acceptor of the results of the action is created, and a new program of actions is built. This happens until the results of the behavior coincide with the new acceptor of the action. Then the behavioral act ends.